|
| |
History: Central Java
The period of history that concerns us here is
that which resulted in the construction of the temples that form the
subject of this site. These temples were constructed by adherents of
the Buddhist and Hindu religions. The earliest form of Buddhism that
came to S.E. Asia was Hinayana. Known centres of Hinayana Buddhism
were Kutai on Kalimantan, West Java and Sumatra that flourished in
the 4th and 5th
C A.D. There are no known temple remains of this period. Hinayana Buddhism
survived on Java until the 7th
C. This is known because the Chinese pilgrim I-ching, in a study of Chinese who
went overseas to study Buddhism mentions that Master Hui-ning stayed
on Java from 664 to 667 to work with a local Javanese scholar by the
name of Jnanabhadra to translate a Hinayana treatise on Buddha's
nirvana. I-ching himself spent 6 month in Sriwijaya to study
Sanskrit grammar ahead of a planned stay in India. Later he spent
another 10 years in Sriwijaya (685-95) during which time he
wrote a book on Buddhism as practised in India and the Malay
Archipelago. Whereas I-ching describes Java and Sumatra as being
predominantly Hinayana, Mahayana inscriptions dating from the 7th
C have been found on Sumatra, and not much later Hinayana was submerged by
Mahayana, both on Java and Sumatra. Hinduism, at first brought from
South India had been brought to the Java in the very early days of
the Christian era.
T'ang dynasty sources mention that Queen Si-Mo
ruled Java between 674-5. This queen is not known from local
sources, and the first ruler mentioned in local sources is king
Sanjaya. This king is known both from a decree that he issued (732,
Prasasti Canggal), and from later sources that refer to him. The
Canggal inscription is written in Sanskrit rather than Old Javanese,
suggesting that this king was not indigenous, but originated from
South India (Pallava script). Sanjaya is also the first king mentioned in the list of previous rulers given by
King Balitung (aka rakai Watukura) in 907 [link].
A much later source (Carita Parahyangan) describes Sanjaya as a
conqueror who subjugated Bali, Bima, Malayu, Kemir (=Cambodia),
Keling (with a ruler of Srivijayaya), Barus and China. This may be somewhat of an exaggeration, but
Javanese control of Cambodia is confirmed both by Cambodian sources
(mentioning that King Jayavarman II declared independence from the
Javanese in 802), and Arab sources (Abu Said, 10th
C). A 12th
C deed found at Pojok, Semarang mentions the establishment of a tax-exempt
settlement for the successors of Sanjaya.
While Sanjaya was Sivaite, the rulers
later became Buddhist, and were identified as being of the Sailendra dynasty. This dynasty is again believed to have originated from
overseas, in this case Northern India. The next King (based on Balitung's
list) was the Buddhist Kariyana Panamkaranah who is mentioned in
the Prasasti Kalasan of 778. This inscription commemorates the dedication of a
temple at Kalasan formally establishing a Mahayana Buddhist settlement, making
Kalasan the earliest known Buddhist temple on Java. There is uncertainty
surrounding the change of religion of the ruling house of Java. One
explanation would be that the two dynasties were united by marriage,
with Buddhism becoming the religion of the ruling house
thereafter. This theory finds support in a copper plate found
at Nalanda (in Bengal) that records the founding of a monastry by King
Balaputra of Suwarnadwipa and explicitly details his parents and
their respective origins.
The increasing Buddhist power on Central Java is believed to be the impetus for migration of a group of Hindus to East Java. Evidence of this would be found in the
760 inscription of Dinaya (near Malang) to commemorate the
consacration of a stone Agastya statue to replace one of sandalwood
that had perished. Close to Dinaya is Candi Badut (c760).
This sanctuary is also dedicated to Agastya. T'ang dynasty annals
mention that the King of Ka-ling lives on Java and that his ancestor
Ki-yen moved his capital East between 742 and 755.
De Casparis, based on details epigraphical
work done in the 1950s [source Dumarcay, Borobudur pp2-5], is of the
opinion that the two dynasties shared power on Central Java. He explains the founding of the a Buddhist temple by Panamkaranah as
the act of a vassal who dedicated a temple to the god of his
suzerain. De Casparis proposes two separate lines of succession for
the houses that, in case of the Sailendra, end with Samaratunga whom De Casparis believes ruled until
832. Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya married Pramodawardhani of
the Sailendra dynasty, with supremacy returning to Sanjaya.
Chinese sources record the following tributary
missions: 742 as the last 8th
C tributary mission of Sriwijaya, missions by Java between 767 and 873,
with Sriwijaya once again resuming the payment of tribute to
China in 904. From then on, not only do Chinese sources stop
mentioning Java, we also know little from Java itself, until a bit
later when the centre of power has shifted to East Java. Central Javanese traditions were to be continued in
East Java, making it likely that part of the community relocated. This is
also confirmed by King Balitung, who traces his predecessors to
Sanjaya of Mataram. However, there is no certainty just what
prompted the relocation.
Natural disasters, or for instance a declining
fertility of the land have been given as a reason for the relocation
from Central Java to East Java. An alternative explanation that I
propose here is that the power of the Javanese Sanjaya
declined relative to the Sumatran Sailendra's who now also controlled the Pasundan. As seen above, Java
continued to pay tribute to China until 873, but thereafter this
role was resumed by Sriwijaya suggesting that they were now seen
as the dominant power. Little indeed is heard from East Java (from
domestic or foreign sources) for the next two-over centuries
suggesting that for a time at least, this dynasty was in relative
obscurity.
History: East Java
The East Javanese period starts with King Sindok who was to found a dynasty that would rule through 1222.
Sindok's dynasty was first called Isana, and later Dharmawangsa after a late 10th C king.
King Sindok ruled from 929 through 947. The years of his rule were recorded in
an old prasasti that is kept in Calcultta. Sindok's daughter Sri Isanatunggawijaya married King Lokapala and of their union Makutawangsawardhana
was born. We know little about these two rulers, but more is known about the
latter's successor King Dharmawangsa who ruled from 991 - 1016. Dharmawangsa composed a legal code (the Shivashasana, known on Bali as Poerwadigama), and ordered the first Old Javanese version of the
Mahabharata.
Dharmawangsa attacks Srivijaya, but the Kingdom had not weakened to the extent that the attack went unchallenged. In return Srivijaya mounts a counter attack. Dharmawangsa died and his son in law, Airlangga proclaims himself King.
Airlangga was the eldest son of Makutawangawardhana's daughter
Gunapriyadharmapatni and Udayana, a Balinese prince. Airlangga's youngest
brother, Anak Wungsu, was to rule on Bali. He is buried at Tampaksiring.
In 1024 a war ensued between Srivijaya and the South Indian King Rajendracola. In 1035 Airlangga succeeds in
establishing himself as King, and he unifies Java.
Airlangga was an illustrous ruler. He commissioned the Arjunawiwaha - a Javanised Indian epic, started waterworks and encouraged the sea trade through Tuban. The royal seat was not in Tuban, however, but in
Kahuripan. He tightened ties with Bali and Borneo, that later became his most important vassal.
In 1042 before retiring as a hermit, Airlangga split his kingdom between his two sons. Of the two kingdoms Daha (at Kediri) and Janggala (near Surabaya) the former was to thrive through 1222. The Daha kingdom boasts the important king Jayabaya, whose prophesies remain popular right through the present day. Jayabaya also commissioned a Javanese version of the Bharatayudha in 1157.
Daha was ultimately brought down by a rebellious province. Ken Arok, was an upstart who gained the power over Tumapel, a fiefdom east of Kawi, and then gradually extends it by gobbling up parts of the old Janggala kingdom. As he consolidated his power he rebelled against Kediri and proceeded to ask its obeisance. Ken Arok takes power as king Rajasa, and with him starts the Singasari dynasty. The last king of Singasari, Kertanagara was to change Javanese foreign policy. He entered into an alliance with Champa and sails against Srivijaya in 1275. Kertanagara's troops remained West for many years, making the Kingdom vulnerable to attack.
When, in 1293, Kertanagara's troops returned home they had not succeeded in bringing down Srivijaya, but did gain a vassal in the old kingdom of Melayu which at the time was said to have revived. Kertanagara's kingdom was attacked out of Kediri while his troops were away, and Kertanagara abdicated.
Before his abdication, Kertanagara had rejected the advances from Kublai Khan who demanded obedience from Kertanagara. To illustrate his point, Kertanagara had defaced the Khan's envoy. In return, Kublai Khan sent a punitive expedition, but it was said to be ill-fated. Of the 1,000 vessels sent, few arrived, and the sailors were starved and low on morale. The vessels had not been allowed to moor in Champa, an ally of Singasari. When the Chinese troops did reach Java, Prince Wijaya, a descendant of Kertanagara sent them on Jayakatwang, the usurper from Kediri. Prince Wijaya had apparently been allowed by Kediri to establish himself near Surabaya having promised them allegiance. However,
this faith would prove to be misplaced.
Prince Wijaya's Kingdom was to become known under the name Majapahit. Wijaya became its first ruler with the name
Kertarajasa.
Of the many kings of Majapahit [link:
genealogy], none was to become as famous as Hayam Wuruk whose official name was Rajasanagara. He ruled from 1350-1389, and owes much of his fame to his first minister Gajah Mada. This minister had assisted his mother who ruled as Hayam Wuruk's regent when he was still young. Gajah Mada (1331 - 1364) ruled over most of the area we now call Indonesia, less North Sulawesi but with the inclusion of the Malay Peninsula.
Much is knows about the kingdom of Majapahit at this time due to the survival of
the Nagarakrtagama, a narrative about
King Rajasanegara as written by one of his courtiers under the pen-name Mpu
Prapanca.
On his death, Hayam Wuruk gave the Blambangan (Java's Eastern Salient) to a second son (or son-in-law). This turned out to be a poor decision: a civil war erupted and famine ensued. Thus power of the mighty kingdom of Majapahit faded.
As Majapahit weakened, its power eroded. This erosion was worst in the cities on Java's north coast which prospered from foreign trade. This trade brought Islam - via Persia, India and Sumatra - to Java. The city states that were to gain the supremacy over Majapahit were no longer semi-Hinduised but Muslim.
Last updated: 25-Apr-2007
|
